The quantity of samples has always been the biggest challenge for biological studies in general, and pathological analysis in particular. Since microfluidics is capable of dealing with the minimal quantity of samples, it has therefore emerged as a promising tool for pathologists. Currently, microfluidics platforms are capable of single-cell analysis, and can even analyze the single-cell interrogation of signaling networks in cultured cell lines. In the past decades, numerous conventional and automated strategies have been successfully embraced to diagnose the ever-increasing antibiotic resistance in bacteria [77]. Nevertheless, the most-practiced techniques, such as disk diffusion and microdilution, have a high chance of cross-contamination, laborious protocols, lengthy processing times, improper power supplies, and cumbersome set-ups that render their application in resource-limited regions, and unfortunately, these regions have a higher rate of resistance too [2,6]. The rise of microfluidics as a diagnostic tool has shown promise in addressing the abovementioned shortcomings [78,79].
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Several electrochemical devices have been developed for AST. One of the most prominent works utilized AC electrokinetic fluid motion and Joule heating-induced temperature elevation for the electrochemical sensing of bacterial 16S rRNA (Figure 4) [86]. Real-time and rapid detection are possible, as 16s rRNA is highly specific for the bacterial pathogens in blood culture and does not need prior purification. Although 16S rRNA has indeed provided critical details about sensitive bacterial analysis, genetic complexities across kingdoms make it inappropriate for reproducible, clinically relevant, or point-of-care susceptibility testing. The use of electroactive chemicals (redox reagents) as probe molecules can be an interesting approach to elucidating bacterial susceptibility. In 2015, pyocyanin, a potential marker of cell viability and virulence, was studied for the electrochemical monitoring of the susceptibility of P. aeruginosa biofilms on a microfluidic device [90]. A good correlation between the electrical signal drop and the viability of P. aeruginosa cells in the presence of antibiotics was successfully demonstrated. The most recent electrochemical biosensor can perform AST within 90 min along with the label-free isolation of bacteria from whole blood samples [91]. Plastic-based microchips with printed electrodes capture the target bacteria with the help of specific antibodies. The electrochemical response to the captured bacteria is monitored in both the presence and absence of antibiotics.
It was, all agreed, the end of an era. The greats of Calernia gathered in Laure to pay their respect, even old Chancellor Sargon who was finishing up his second mandate. Vivienne the Wise had been the last survivor of the Woe, most agreed, though some insisted that since no new Ranger had risen Lady Indrani was still out there somewhere. Whatever the truth of that, the passing of the queen felt to many like the end of the revered generation that had won the War on Keter. The crown prince of Callow, Edmund Foundling, had insisted on his mother receiving full honours before his own coronation and so remained a prince as he welcomed the dignitaries.
Stones and gems were replaced instead by engraved steles of black stone of different heights that formed a complicated arcane pattern, but the sight of bare stone walls covered in glyphs was most familiar. I should not have been surprised: Trismegistan sorcery came from the works of the very man whose work this was. There was a pool of what might have looked like water at the heart of the room, whose high arched ceilings crackled with shivering power, but there was a luminous sheen to it that betrayed it was no such thing.
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